Plutarch
Greek · Philosophy · Ethics · Others · Paraenesis
81 works · 45,879 aligned sentences
"Is the Saying ""Live in Obscurity"" Right?"
This philosophical essay critically examines and refutes the famous Epicurean maxim "Live in obscurity" (lathe biosas). The author points out the hypocrisy of the maxim's creator, who secretly desired fame, and argues that vices should not be hidden but brought to light for healing. Furthermore, the work asserts that virtue and talent can only realize their true value through active engagement in society rather than through withdrawal. Using the metaphor of night's darkness and the sun's awakening light, the author emphasizes the importance of perception and active life in preventing the decay of the soul. Ultimately, the essay concludes that the purpose of existence is knowledge and that the essence of the soul is light, contrasting the luminous afterlife of the active and pious with the absolute darkness and annihilation that await the inactive and unjust.
Philosophy3 chunks · §1-3–§6-7251 aligned sentencesRead →A Philosopher Ought to Converse Especially with Men in Power
This work is an ethical and political treatise discussing the significance and benefit of philosophers actively engaging with powerful men and rulers. The author argues that the true purpose of philosophy is not merely to seek individual tranquility in isolation, but to spread virtue and public benefit throughout society. It explains that both inner reason and spoken reason aim to establish friendship among people, and presents the correct attitude of a wise man toward fame in his relations with politicians. Furthermore, instructing a ruler is described not just as helping an individual, but as a public endeavor that refines the entire constitution and benefits all citizens. In conclusion, the philosopher finds the greatest joy when their teachings are engraved upon the ruler's soul and manifest as law for the state.
Philosophy3 chunks · §1–§3-4240 aligned sentencesRead →Advice to Bride and Groom
This work is an instructional prose piece that offers practical advice for a newlywed couple to achieve a harmonious and happy marriage. Addressing a young bride and groom, the author draws upon numerous historical anecdotes, Aesop's fables, and metaphors from nature to impart wisdom on marital unity. In the beginning, the text emphasizes the importance of overcoming initial discords, sharing emotions, and establishing mutual harmony. As the discussion progresses, it advises the wife to avoid vanity and luxury, focusing instead on cultivating modesty and inner virtue, while urging the couple to share their property and social relationships completely and avoid daily conflicts and anger. Finally, the work concludes that the husband should share philosophy and learning with his wife, suggesting that elevating each other's virtues through intellectual education fosters a truly enduring bond.
Others7 chunks · §0-8–§47-48651 aligned sentencesRead →Beasts Are Rational
This philosophical work explores whether humans or beasts are superior in terms of virtue and reason, presented in a humorous dialogue format. Set on the island of the enchantress Circe, the dialogue takes place between the hero Odysseus and Gryllos, a Greek who has been transformed into a pig by magic. Refusing to be restored to his human form, Gryllos argues for the superiority of the beastly life from the perspective of virtue. He points out that the courage of animals is genuine and innate, unlike that of humans, and that beasts maintain a natural "temperance" free from vain desires and luxury. Furthermore, Gryllos demonstrates that animals possess inherent wisdom, learning abilities, and self-healing skills, thereby challenging Odysseus's assumption that beasts lack reason. The work playfully subverts anthropocentric values, leaving the reader to question the true nature of rationality and a life lived according to nature.
Philosophy8 chunks · §1–§9-10697 aligned sentencesRead →Can Virtue Be Taught?
This short philosophical treatise addresses the fundamental question of whether virtue (arete) can be taught. The author points out the apparent contradiction in human behavior: while people recognize that even minor everyday skills, such as shoemaking, cooking, or basic etiquette, require careful learning and practice, they assume that the most important art of all—living well and possessing virtue—requires no instruction. Through various historical anecdotes and concrete analogies, the work sharply criticizes this inconsistency. The author argues that if minor crafts require training, then the cultivation of character and virtue must demand it all the more. Ultimately, the work concludes that education and training of the soul are indispensable for living a good life, strongly affirming that virtue is indeed something that can and must be taught.
Philosophy1 chunks · §1-3138 aligned sentencesRead →Causes of Natural Phenomena
This work is a natural philosophical treatise that investigates the causes of various phenomena in the natural world by presenting physical, biological, and environmental hypotheses for specific questions. Written in a question-and-answer format, it examines a wide range of natural occurrences across thirty-nine sections. The early sections address questions related to agriculture and weather, such as the effects of seawater and rainwater on plants, the benefits of salt for livestock, and why thunderstorms stimulate seed growth. In the middle sections, the discussion expands to marine physics, the physiological mechanism of an octopus's camouflage through particles, and the ecology of animals like bears and hunting dogs. The final sections explore diverse topics, including the impact of weather on hunting, the physical principles of plant growth, the behavior of bees, and the optical properties of water depth. Throughout the work, the text demonstrates a consistent effort to explain the order of nature rationally by combining empirical observation with contemporary natural philosophy.
Philosophy9 chunks · §1-2–§34-391,023 aligned sentencesRead →Comparison Between Aristophanes and Menander
This critical work evaluates and contrasts the styles and literary values of two major ancient Greek comic playwrights, Aristophanes and Menander. The author begins by comparing their diction and expressive styles, criticizing Aristophanes for his lack of consistency and disregard for the traits of his characters. In contrast, Menander is highly praised for his harmonious and universal power of expression. Furthermore, the work rejects Aristophanes' poetic style as coarse, malicious, and unacceptable to both the general public and intellectuals. On the other hand, it commends Menander for his universal grace and divine, refined wit, arguing that his comedies possess the power to heal people's minds in both theaters and banquets. Through this sharp contrast, the work illuminates the ideal form of refined comedy.
Philosophy2 chunks · §1-2–§3-4124 aligned sentencesRead →Comparison of Agesilaus and Pompey
This work is a comparative study contrasting the lives and achievements of the Spartan king Agesilaus and the Roman general Pompey. The author analyzes the differences between the two figures through three main perspectives: the legitimacy of their rise to power, their gratitude toward past benefactors, and their motives for unjust political actions. While Agesilaus is evaluated as a loyal patriot who prioritized his homeland despite questionable actions regarding the throne, Pompey is criticized for his disregard of the law. Furthermore, in military terms, the author contrasts Agesilaus's strategic judgment, which kept him undefeated, with Pompey's lack of crisis management, noting how he yielded to external pressures and rushed into a disastrous defeat. Finally, the comparison examines their respective motives and fates during their journeys to Egypt, concluding the overall assessment of their characters.
Geography5 chunks · §1.1-1.4–§5.1167 aligned sentencesRead →Comparison of Agis and Cleomenes and the Gracchi Brothers
This work is the comparison section of the Parallel Lives, juxtaposing the Greek Spartan reformers, Agis and Cleomenes, with the Roman reformers, the Gracchi brothers (Tiberius and Gaius). The author begins by comparing their natural talents, upbringing, and attitudes toward money. Next, he contrasts the scale and nature of their reforms, comparing the fundamental Spartan changes based on ancestral laws that influenced all of Greece with the Roman reforms. The comparison also extends to their military achievements and their respective deaths, noting how the Spartan kings chose suicide to avoid killing citizens, whereas the Gracchi died during civil conflict. Furthermore, the author contrasts the passivity of Agis and the violence of Cleomenes with the cautious efforts of the Gracchi, especially Gaius, to avoid internal strife. Finally, the work concludes that Tiberius was superior in virtue, Agis in having the fewest faults, and Cleomenes in executive power and boldness.
Geography5 chunks · §1.1-1.4–§5.1-5.6146 aligned sentencesRead →Comparison of Alcibiades and Coriolanus
This work presents a comparative analysis of the lives and characters of the Athenian politician Alcibiades and the Roman general Gaius Marcius Coriolanus. While acknowledging their exceptional military talents, the author focuses on their contrasting and problematic political attitudes toward the populace. The comparison examines their personal motivations, such as deceit and anger, their behavior during exile, and their respective attitudes toward wealth and honor. It vividly contrasts Alcibiades, who was affable and persuasive yet prone to personal excess, with Marcius, who was remarkably self-controlled regarding money but brought about his own tragedy through his uncompromising nature. Ultimately, the text demonstrates how these differences in character shaped the citizens' perceptions of them and determined their respective political fates.
Geography5 chunks · §1.1-1.4–§5.1-5.2176 aligned sentencesRead →Comparison of Aristides and Cato the Elder
This work is a comparison (synkrisis) by Plutarch, contrasting the lives and virtues of Aristides, the Athenian statesman, and Cato the Elder, the Roman censor. It begins by highlighting how both men rose from obscurity through their own virtue and ability, while examining the different social contexts and political rivals they faced. In terms of military and political achievements, the text contrasts Aristides' selfless contribution to the Persian Wars with Cato's personal martial exploits and his reliance on extraordinary eloquence against his adversaries. The discussion also delves into their household management and attitude toward wealth, contrasting Aristides' voluntary poverty and self-sufficiency with Cato's preoccupation with property, his self-contradictory stance on frugality, and his questionable late marriage. Ultimately, the work illuminates the distinct characters of both men by weighing their political achievements against their personal moderation.
Geography6 chunks · §1.1-1.4–§6.1-6.2226 aligned sentencesRead →Comparison of Cimon and Lucullus
This work is a comparative essay (synkrisis) that contrasts the lives and achievements of the Greek general Cimon and the Roman general Lucullus to evaluate their relative merits. The author begins by highlighting the similarity in their final days, both having died in a still-free homeland, while examining the transition in their lifestyles from youth to old age, their use of wealth, and Lucullus's hedonistic retirement. The comparison then shifts to their military accomplishments, examining Cimon's unique feat of winning victories on both land and sea in a single day, as well as their leadership over subordinates and the reasons why their conquests of Asia remained incomplete. On the other hand, the author points out that the scale of Lucullus's campaigns and the formidable nature of his enemies far surpassed those of Cimon. Ultimately, the work concludes by illustrating the difficulty of rendering a definitive judgment between these two prominent figures given their distinct virtues and shortcomings.
Geography3 chunks · §1.1-1.7–§3.1-3.6165 aligned sentencesRead →Comparison of Demetrius and Antony
This work is a comparative essay evaluating the achievements and characters of two prominent historical figures: Demetrius I, a Hellenistic monarch, and Mark Antony, a Roman general. The comparison begins by contrasting how they rose to power, noting that while Demetrius inherited his father's foundation, Antony established his vast authority through his own efforts following Caesar's death. It then proceeds to examine their policies of rule, contrasting Demetrius's liberation of Greece with Antony's suppression of Roman liberty. Furthermore, the author compares their attitudes toward pleasure and marriage, highlighting how Antony's infatuation with Cleopatra led to military negligence, while Demetrius's debauchery caused harm to others. Finally, the work concludes by analyzing their downfalls—comparing Demetrius, who was abandoned by his allies, with Antony, who abandoned his own men—and their respective ends, offering a ultimate assessment of their virtues and vices through their contrasting deaths.
Geography6 chunks · §1.1-1.3–§6.1-6.2139 aligned sentencesRead →Comparison of Demosthenes with Cicero
This work is a comparative essay that evaluates and contrasts the lives and characters of Demosthenes, the great Greek orator, and Cicero, the Roman statesman and writer. The author begins by examining the differences in their oratorical abilities, prose styles, and temperaments, contrasting Demosthenes' seriousness with Cicero's humor and erudition. Next, their attitudes toward self-praise are compared, highlighting Cicero's tendency toward self-glorification in contrast to Demosthenes' humility. The comparison then shifts to their political capabilities and financial integrity, pointing out Cicero's incorruptibility against Demosthenes' financial scandals. Finally, the work depicts their contrasting experiences in exile and their final moments, concluding with Demosthenes' dignified death by poison and Cicero's tragic end.
Geography5 chunks · §1.1-1.6–§5.1133 aligned sentencesRead →Comparison of Dion and Brutus
This work compares and evaluates the lives and achievements of Dion, who overthrew the Sicilian tyrant, and Brutus, who assassinated the Roman dictator Caesar, both of whom fought for republican freedom. The author begins by examining the preconditions of their uprisings, noting that Dion initiated his campaign spontaneously using his own wealth, whereas Brutus joined the conspiracy under the influence of others and out of self-preservation. However, regarding the nature of their adversaries, the author praises Brutus's capacity for confronting the formidable and widely mourned Caesar, contrasting it with Dion's struggle against the mediocre tyrant Dionysius. Furthermore, the text compares their military judgments, the purity of their motives, and the trust they garnered. Ultimately, through anecdotes of the posthumous respect shown even by his enemies and Octavian's preservation of his statue, Brutus's exceptional character and legacy are highlighted in comparison to Dion's.
Geography5 chunks · §1.1-1.7–§5.1-5.4149 aligned sentencesRead →Comparison of Lycurgus and Numa
This work offers a comparative evaluation of two legendary ancient rulers, Lycurgus of Sparta and Numa Pompilius of Rome. Following the narratives of their lives, the text highlights the differences in their governance styles, specifically examining their approaches to royal succession, citizenship, and slavery. It analyzes their contrasting systems of military, economy, and social order, comparing Lycurgus's radical pursuit of equality and strict military service with Numa's tolerance of economic inequality and commerce. Furthermore, the comparison extends to their marriage laws, the social role of women, and the absence of a unified educational system under Numa, which ultimately led to the swift collapse of Rome's peaceful state after his death. Finally, while acknowledging Numa's greatness in establishing peace through persuasion and wisdom, the text comprehensively assesses the merits and limitations of both lawgivers' institutions.
Geography4 chunks · §1.1-1.5–§4.1-4.8234 aligned sentencesRead →Comparison of Lysander and Sulla
This work is a comparative study contrasting the lives and characters of the Spartan general Lysander and the Roman dictator Sulla. The author begins by identifying their common ground—how both rose from obscurity to achieve great power—before examining the critical differences in how they acquired and exercised that power. While Lysander sought to reform the state through persuasion, Sulla relied on military might and violence to establish a regime of terror. Their attitudes toward wealth and pleasure are also contrasted: Lysander lived a frugal private life but corrupted Sparta by introducing wealth, whereas Sulla indulged in luxury himself while imposing strict laws on the citizens. Finally, by analyzing their military achievements, the formidable nature of their enemies, and their actions in times of adversity, the text highlights the distinct virtues and flaws of both leaders.
Geography5 chunks · §1.1-1.4–§5.1-5.5199 aligned sentencesRead →Comparison of Nicias and Crassus
This work is a comparative essay that evaluates and contrasts two prominent ancient leaders, the Athenian general Nicias and the Roman statesman Crassus, in terms of their character, achievements, and tragic ends. It begins by examining their methods of acquiring wealth and their patterns of spending, contrasting Nicias's relatively blameless acquisition with Crassus's massive and competitive public expenditures. Regarding political activities, the text pits Nicias's cautious, sometimes timid pursuit of peace against Crassus's violent but high-spirited confrontation with formidable rivals. In terms of responsibility to their respective states, the author criticizes Nicias for surrendering military command to an incompetent rival out of self-preservation, while also condemning Crassus for dragging Rome into an unwanted war driven by personal ambition. Finally, it contrasts the military campaigns and ends of both men, pairing Crassus's reckless and ill-fated Parthian expedition with Nicias's reluctance and eventual tragic defeat in the Sicilian Expedition, illustrating how both met their demises under tragic circumstances.
Geography5 chunks · §1.1-1.4–§5.1-5.2200 aligned sentencesRead →Comparison of Pelopidas and Marcellus
This work presents a comparative evaluation of the characters and military achievements of the Theban general Pelopidas and the Roman general Marcellus. The author begins by comparing their personal virtues and battlefield exploits, highlighting Marcellus's crucial contribution in standing up to the formidable Hannibal and reviving the fighting spirit of the Roman army. He then contrasts Pelopidas's undefeated record with Marcellus's numerous victories, weighing monumental achievements such as the invasion of Sparta and the siege of Syracuse. Finally, the narrative criticizes both commanders for their reckless deaths, while contrasting Marcellus, whose end was honored by his enemies, with Pelopidas, who was buried by his allies. Through these points of comparison, the text explores the balance between heroic valor and the responsibilities of leadership.
Geography3 chunks · §1.1-1.7–§3.1-3.6126 aligned sentencesRead →Comparison of Pericles and Fabius Maximus
This work compares the achievements and character of Pericles, the great statesman who led Athens during its golden age, and Fabius Maximus, the general who sustained Rome during the crisis of the Second Punic War. It begins by contrasting the nature of their leadership and the challenges they faced: Pericles governed Athens during a period of prosperity, whereas Fabius supported Rome on the brink of collapse. In terms of military prowess, the text examines their respective victories and failures, evaluating their tactical decisions as well as the accuracy of their predictions regarding the outcomes of their wars. The comparison further delves into their political ethics, contrasting Pericles's role in instigating war with Fabius's magnanimity, and looking at their respective attitudes toward wealth and integrity. Ultimately, by highlighting both Pericles's magnificent architectural legacy in Athens and Fabius's steady endurance, the work provides a multi-faceted evaluation of these two outstanding ancient leaders.
Geography3 chunks · §1.1-1.4–§3.1-3.5122 aligned sentencesRead →Comparison of Philopoemen and Titus
This work is a comparative essay by Plutarch that contrasts the lives and achievements of the Greek general Philopoemen and the Roman general Titus Flamininus. The author examines their contributions to Greece, their sacrifices in battle, their personal flaws, and the nature of their respective deaths. In terms of military experience, Philopoemen is highly praised for his unique accomplishments in reforming the military system and securing victories during Greece's decline. Conversely, Titus is portrayed as relying on Rome's established military institutions, distinguishing himself more through diplomacy and justice than through personal prowess in hand-to-hand combat. Ultimately, the author concludes the comparison by awarding the honor of military excellence to Philopoemen and the honor of justice to Titus, balancing the distinct virtues of both leaders.
Geography3 chunks · §1.1-1.3–§3.1-3.3103 aligned sentencesRead →Comparison of Sertorius and Eumenes
This work is a comparative essay that evaluates and contrasts the lives and achievements of the Roman general Sertorius and the Greek general Eumenes, who served Alexander the Great. The comparison begins by highlighting their common ground: both commanded vast armies as foreigners in lands outside their homelands, demonstrating exceptional military genius. However, it points out clear differences in the processes by which they acquired authority and the motivations of their followers. In terms of character, Eumenes is described as someone who loved war and fought voluntarily, whereas Sertorius loved peace but was forced to fight reluctantly to ensure his own safety. Finally, the text contrasts their deaths, concluding with the distinction between Sertorius, who maintained his dignity despite being betrayed, and Eumenes, who pleaded for his life after being captured, thereby surrendering his soul to the enemy.
Geography2 chunks · §1.1-1.3–§2.1-2.471 aligned sentencesRead →Comparison of Solon and Publicola
This work is a comparative biography that contrasts the lives and achievements of Solon, the Athenian legislator, and Publicola, one of the founders of the Roman Republic. The author begins by examining Solon's own definition of happiness, arguing that Publicola's life—marked by the prosperity of his descendants, a beautiful end, and the noble use of wealth—actually fit this definition more closely. The comparison then shifts to their political achievements, contrasting Solon's cancellation of debts and constitutional reforms with Publicola's overthrow of the monarchy and establishment of democratic offices. While Solon's laws proved short-lived and failed to prevent the rise of a tyrant, Publicola's political system endured and provided long-term stability. Finally, the author evaluates their respective military exploits and diplomatic skills, highlighting Publicola's triumphs in defending the fledgling Roman Republic.
Geography4 chunks · §1.1-1.5–§4.1-4.4170 aligned sentencesRead →Comparison of Theseus and Romulus
This work is a comparative essay that directly contrasts the lives, achievements, and characters of Theseus, the legendary hero of Athens, and Romulus, the founder of Rome. The author praises Theseus for his selfless and courageous decision to face the Minotaur in Crete, while highly evaluating Romulus's outstanding accomplishment as a founder who built a great state from nothing. The comparison highlights their political deviations, pointing out how Theseus erred toward excessive democracy while Romulus leaned toward tyranny. Furthermore, the text meticulously compares the tragedies they caused to their own relatives, the differing motives behind their abductions of women, and the divine favor surrounding their origins. By exploring these contrasts, the work vividly portrays the virtues and flaws of these two foundational heroes, prompting reflection on the qualities of a true ruler.
Geography6 chunks · §1.1-1.5–§6.1-6.5187 aligned sentencesRead →Comparison of Timoleon with Aemilius Paulus
This work is a comparative study contrasting the lives and characters of two great leaders: the Roman general Aemilius Paulus and the Greek commander Timoleon, the liberator of Syracuse. Both men share the common achievement of defeating powerful enemies and liberating cities and islands. The author first analyzes the military differences between them, examining the nature of the adversaries they faced and the character of the armies they led. Next, the comparison shifts to their personal virtues and self-control, focusing on their obedience to law, financial integrity, and resilience in the face of adversity. By contrasting Aemilius's steadfastness and nobility with Timoleon's responses to his circumstances and passions, the work highlights the distinct moral qualities of each hero.
Geography2 chunks · §1.1-1.5–§2.1-2.1281 aligned sentencesRead →Consolation to His Wife
This work is a letter of consolation sent by the husband to his wife, who is grieving the loss of their young daughter. While deeply mourning the child's death, the author urges his wife to maintain self-control and avoid falling into excessive grief. Recalling her past resilience and moderate lifestyle, he advises her not to let sorrow take root in her heart and stresses the importance of keeping both mind and body strong. He also cautions against the unnecessary interference of mourning onlookers, encouraging her instead to appreciate the precious years they shared with their daughter. Ultimately, he consoles her by explaining that the soul of a child who dies young is freed from bodily constraints and transitions directly to a pure, divine realm, offering a message of peace and hope.
Others4 chunks · §1-4–§9-11356 aligned sentencesRead →Greek and Roman Parallel Stories
This work is a collection of parallel stories that juxtaposes historical and mythological events from Greece with similar legendary accounts from Rome and Italy. The author's primary aim is to reinforce the credibility of ancient history by demonstrating the striking similarities between the events of both cultures. The narratives are organized thematically, beginning in the early sections with political and military motifs, such as heroic deaths in battle, self-sacrifice, and acts of treason. As the work progresses, the focus shifts toward familial tragedies, forbidden love, infidelity, and brutal betrayals motivated by greed or jealousy. The collection concludes with episodes of revenge, the downfall of cruel tyrants, and the mythical origins of city foundations, leaving the reader with a vivid sense of the shared moral and cultural fabric of the Greco-Roman world.
Geography9 chunks · §intro-3–§37-411,397 aligned sentencesRead →Greek Questions
This work explores the origins (aetia) of peculiar customs, religious rituals, official titles, place names, and proverbs passed down across various cities and regions of ancient Greece, incorporating historical and mythical episodes. Rather than a dialogue, it takes the form of short essays addressing fifty-nine specific questions. The text begins with explanations of unique administrative titles and terms in places like Epidaurus and Cnidus, then progresses to discuss Delphic festivals, migration legends, social institutions under Megarian democracy, and strange folklore regarding sacred grounds in Arcadia. In the latter half, it introduces rules of exclusion for women in certain sanctuaries, unusual rituals in Samos and Cos, and place names born from political coups. By uncovering the historical realities and mythical events behind seemingly bizarre traditions, the work illuminates the diverse cultural layers of the ancient Greek world.
Philosophy12 chunks · §1-9–§57-591,305 aligned sentencesRead →How a Man May Become Aware of His Progress in Virtue
This work is a practical moral essay that presents concrete criteria for how an individual progresses in ethical and philosophical virtue (arete) and becomes aware of this progress. The author criticizes the radical Stoic view that classes all people under equal vice, arguing instead that progress toward virtue is achieved gradually through the continuous exercise of reason and is indeed self-detectable. The discussion focuses on inner transformation, where one abandons concern for public reputation or empty rhetoric, turning instead toward introspective dialogue and character improvement. Furthermore, signs of true progress are identified in the willingness to acknowledge one's faults, the stability of reason even within one's dreams, and the passionate desire to emulate (zelos) the good deeds of others. Ultimately, the work concludes that admiring and emulating great exemplars, while strictly managing even one's minor errors, serves as the definitive proof of reaching a secure moral state.
Philosophy10 chunks · §1–§15-17637 aligned sentencesRead →How to Profit by One's Enemies
This ethical treatise addresses how to utilize the inevitable presence of "enemies" in human relations for one's own moral growth and character development. Addressing Cornelius Pulcher, the author argues that, just as humans utilize wild animals and natural forces, a wise person can turn enmity to their own advantage. The core of the argument is that the constant surveillance of enemies provides a powerful motivation for self-discipline and living a blameless life. Furthermore, the author asserts that even unjust criticism from enemies should be used as an opportunity for self-reflection, and that keeping silent in the face of insults fosters high-level self-control and generosity. Ultimately, by directing innate jealousy and combativeness toward enemies, one can avoid discord with close associates and pursue true justice and virtue using the enemy's failures as negative examples. This work offers a unique perspective that redefines the enemy not as someone to be eliminated, but as the ultimate training ground for perfecting one's own virtue.
Philosophy6 chunks · §1-2–§10-11529 aligned sentencesRead →Institutions of the Spartans
This work comprehensively depicts the unique social institutions, educational systems, and daily customs of the ancient Greek city-state of Sparta. In the first section, the strict rules of the communal mess halls, anecdotes surrounding the famous "black broth," the rigorous physical training and education of the youth, and the benefits of dietary restrictions are detailed. The middle section introduces the importance of music and song, the rigid adherence to ancient laws, strict regulations on burials and foreign travel, and social customs such as communal sharing among neighbors. The final section explains the thorough maintenance of discipline, including the ban on theatrical plays and the creation of leisure for citizens through the labor of the Helots. Ultimately, the work outlines Sparta's decline due to the influx of wealth and the decay of its laws, leading to its eventual transition under Roman rule.
Philosophy3 chunks · §1-13–§29-42326 aligned sentencesRead →Letter of Condolence to Apollonius
This work is a consolatory letter addressed to Apollonius, who has lost his young son, urging him to restrain his excessive grief and accept death through reason. The author advocates the concept of "metriopatheia" (moderation of passions) and argues that the vicissitudes of fortune and the hardships of life are inevitable. Drawing extensively on the philosophy of Socrates and Plato, the poetry of Homer, and various historical anecdotes, the text demonstrates from multiple perspectives that death is not an evil but rather a release from worldly suffering and a liberation of the soul. In the latter half, the author highlights the noble examples of ancient sages who endured the loss of their children with equanimity, praises the virtues of Apollonius' deceased son, and envisions the soul's blessed afterlife. Ultimately, the letter concludes by exhorting Apollonius to abandon futile mourning, conform to the laws of nature, and restore his own well-being.
Others18 chunks · §1-3–§36-371,771 aligned sentencesRead →Life of Aristides
This work is a biography depicting the life of Aristides, an ancient Athenian statesman renowned as "the Just." The narrative begins by illustrating his selfless character and his political rivalry with his contrasting adversary, Themistocles. Despite being ostracized by the citizens due to jealousy over his immense justice, Aristides was recalled during the Persian invasion and guided Greece to victory with his strategic wisdom and mediation at Salamis and Plataea. After the war, he earned the deep trust of the allies by fairly assessing the tribute for the Delian League, thereby securing Athens' hegemony. Maintaining his utmost poverty and nobility throughout his life, his virtues were so highly esteemed that the Athenian state protected his descendants after his death.
Geography27 chunks · §1.1-1.9–§27.1-27.41,354 aligned sentencesRead →Life of Cato the Elder
This work is a biography depicting the life of Cato the Elder (Marcus Porcius Cato), an influential statesman and general of the Roman Republic. Renowned for his robust physical strength, eloquence, and extremely frugal lifestyle, Cato stood out in a Roman society that was increasingly leaning toward luxury. As a military commander, he achieved great success through his campaigns in Hispania and a decisive ambush at Thermopylae, while in politics, he relentlessly prosecuted corrupt officials. Upon being elected censor, he strove to purify Roman morals through strict regulations and heavy taxation on luxury goods. In his private life, he managed his household and educated his son with a pragmatic, unyielding severity, harboring deep suspicion toward Greek philosophy and medicine. Even in his advanced years, while enjoying writing and farming, he passionately warned the Senate of the threat posed by Carthage and advocated for its destruction until the end of his days.
Geography27 chunks · §1.1-1.7–§27.1-27.51,378 aligned sentencesRead →Life of Cimon
This biographical work depicts the life of Cimon, a prominent Athenian general and statesman. The author illustrates Cimon's virtues, military genius, and moderation in domestic affairs, presenting him in comparison with Lucullus. The first part introduces Cimon's noble lineage, the rumors of his youthful wildness, and his rise to power through heroic deeds during the Persian Wars, winning the trust of allies and securing Athens' hegemony. It also details his generous and incorruptible character, shown through his sharing of wealth with citizens and embellishing Athens with public buildings. The narrative reaches its military peak with his dual land and sea victory against the Persians at the Battle of the Eurymedon. However, the latter part chronicles his political struggles, as the rise of radical democracy in Athens and his own pro-Spartan tendencies lead to his ostracism. The work concludes with his recall to Athens, his final expedition to Cyprus, and his death under mysterious and ominous signs, after which Greece falls into internal strife and loses its dominance over Persia.
Geography19 chunks · §1.1-1.7–§19.1-19.4992 aligned sentencesRead →Life of Eumenes
This work is a biography depicting the turbulent life of Eumenes of Cardia, a Greek who rose from Alexander the Great's chief secretary to become a prominent general during the Wars of the Diadochi (Successors). The narrative begins with his origins and early career under Philip and Alexander, highlighting both his rise to favor and his occasional conflicts at court. Following Alexander's death, Eumenes is thrust into the fierce power struggles among the Macedonian generals, where he demonstrates exceptional military genius by organizing a formidable cavalry and defeating rivals like Craterus. Even when besieged at the fortress of Nora, he employs extraordinary ingenuity to survive and escape, later navigating complex political rivalries among the eastern satraps. Despite his tactical brilliance and unwavering loyalty to the royal house, he is ultimately betrayed by his own elite infantry, the Silver Shields, and handed over to his rival Antigonus for execution. The biography vividly portrays a resourceful foreigner who, through sheer intellect and resilience, carved his path through a chaotic era of Macedonian dominance.
Geography19 chunks · §1.1-1.3–§19.1-19.2908 aligned sentencesRead →Life of Fabius Maximus
This biography portrays the life of Fabius Maximus, the Roman general who saved Rome from the threat of the Carthaginian general Hannibal during the Second Punic War. The narrative begins with his quiet childhood and noble ancestry, leading to his early military achievements as consul. Following Rome's disastrous defeat at Lake Trasimene, Fabius is appointed dictator and adopts a strategy of attrition, avoiding decisive battles to wear down the enemy. Although his seemingly passive tactics initially draw fierce criticism and ridicule from his peers and the Roman public, the subsequent catastrophic defeat at Cannae proves his wisdom and cautious approach to be the state's only salvation. In the latter half of the work, his clever recapture of Tarentum and his compassionate leadership of his soldiers highlight both his strategic brilliance and moral character. In his final years, he strongly opposes the young Scipio's ambitious plan to invade Carthage directly, but passes away due to illness before witnessing the final victory, mourned by all of Rome as the "Father of the People."
Geography27 chunks · §1.1-1.5–§27.1-27.21,166 aligned sentencesRead →Life of Flamininus
This work is a biography depicting the life of Titus Quinctius Flamininus, a prominent general and statesman of the Roman Republic. Elected consul at an exceptionally young age, Flamininus takes command of the campaign against Macedonia and crosses over to Greece. Demonstrating outstanding military talent, he defeats King Philip V of Macedon at the Battle of Cynoscephalae and subsequently proclaims the freedom of the Greek cities at the Isthmian Games, earning divine adoration from the ecstatic Greek populace. He continues to establish order in Greece and celebrates a magnificent triumph in Rome. However, his later years are marked by political rivalry with Cato the Elder during his censorship, and his relentless pursuit of the exiled, elderly Hannibal in Bithynia, which drives the Carthaginian general to suicide and brings public criticism upon Flamininus for his cruelty. The narrative vividly contrasts the brilliant glories of his early career with the shadows cast by his ambition in his later years.
Geography21 chunks · §1.1-1.4–§21.1-21.8896 aligned sentencesRead →Life of Numa
This biography depicts the life and great reign of Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome. Following the sudden disappearance of the founder Romulus and the subsequent political instability, Numa, a wise Sabine philosopher, is reluctantly chosen and persuaded by the citizens to accept the crown. Eschewing military rule, Numa seeks to temper the warlike spirit of the early Romans by instilling piety through religious rituals and legal reforms. He establishes various priesthoods, including the Pontifex and the Vestal Virgins, reforms the calendar, and reorganizes the citizens into trade guilds to dissolve tribal rivalries. Throughout his long reign, the gates of the Temple of Janus remain completely closed, bringing a miraculous peace to the entire region of Italy. The narrative concludes with Numa's peaceful death in his old age, his grand funeral, and the legacy of his writings, emphasizing his extraordinary piety and wisdom.
Geography22 chunks · §1.1-1.4–§22.1-22.71,239 aligned sentencesRead →Life of Otho
This work is a biographical history depicting the brief reign and dramatic end of Otho, who held the imperial throne of Rome for only a few months during the chaotic 'Year of the Four Emperors.' Upon becoming emperor, Otho attempts a generous and conciliatory rule toward the Senate and the populace, but is quickly confronted by unruly soldiers and the advancing forces of his rival, Vitellius. Pressed by the eager pro-war faction, Otho opts for a decisive battle at Bedriacum, where his forces suffer a devastating defeat due to tactical errors and discord among his generals. To prevent further civil war and spare the lives of Roman citizens, Otho rejects his soldiers' passionate pleas to continue the fight and resolves to save his country through his own death. The narrative concludes with Otho ensuring the safety of his friends and family before resolutely committing suicide.
Geography18 chunks · §1.1-1.3–§18.1-18.4715 aligned sentencesRead →Life of Philopoemen
This work is a biography depicting the life of Philopoemen, a distinguished general of the Achaean League who is often called the "last of the Greeks." Born in Megalopolis, he balanced a simple rural life with rigorous military training from his youth, cultivating the belief that war is the ultimate arena for virtue. After proving his valor at the Battle of Sellasia, he initiated military reforms within the Achaean League, replacing luxury with Macedonian-style heavy armor and transforming the league's forces into a powerful army. Through his exceptional military leadership, he defended Peloponnesian independence by defeating tyrants like Machanidas and Nabis, and incorporating Sparta into the League. He resolutely resisted the expanding hegemony of Rome to maintain Greek autonomy, but in his old age, he was captured during an expedition to quell a rebellion in Messene and ended his life by drinking poison. Following his death, the grieving Achaeans avenged him and brought his ashes back home, laying the great leader to rest with high honors.
Geography21 chunks · §1.1-1.4–§21.1-21.6841 aligned sentencesRead →Life of Publicola
This biography chronicles the life and achievements of Publicola (Valerius), a key statesman during the transition of Rome from a monarchy to an early republic. The narrative begins with the turmoil following the expulsion of King Tarquin, where Valerius proves his loyalty by uncovering a royalist conspiracy. Upon becoming consul, he humbles his power before the citizens and enacts various democratic laws, earning the cognomen "Publicola" (friend of the people). He then defends the fledgling republic against external threats, including the invasion of the Etruscan king Porsenna and subsequent wars with the Sabines, through military skill, diplomacy, and the valor of Roman citizens. The work concludes with his death, where he is deeply mourned by the citizens and buried at public expense. It vividly illustrates how his personal virtue and dedication laid the solid foundations for the newly born Roman Republic.
Geography23 chunks · §1.1-1.5–§23.1-23.31,018 aligned sentencesRead →Life of Sertorius
This work is a biography depicting the turbulent life of Quintus Sertorius, a Roman general who became an exile during the chaotic late Roman Republic. Born into a noble family in the Sabinum region, Sertorius distinguished himself through military exploits in Gaul and Iberia before fleeing to Hispania to escape the civil strife between Marius and Sulla. Rising to leadership among the local Lusitanians, he consistently outmaneuvered the formidable Roman forces led by Metellus and Pompey through brilliant guerrilla tactics and clever psychological ploys, such as utilizing a sacred white fawn to command the respect of the locals. However, amidst prolonged conflict, he faced growing jealousy and betrayal from his own Roman subordinates, culminating in his assassination through a conspiracy led by Perpenna. This narrative vividly portrays the solitary struggle and tragic downfall of a highly capable commander who, despite his nobility and military genius, met a premature end.
Geography27 chunks · §1.1-1.6–§27.1-27.41,102 aligned sentencesRead →Lives of the Ten Orators
The Lives of the Ten Orators is a biographical work detailing the lives, careers, and achievements of the ten canonical Athenian orators who flourished from the Golden Age of Athens to the rise of Macedon. The figures treated in this work are Antiphon, Andocides, Lysias, Isocrates, Isaeus, Aeschines, Lycurgus, Demosthenes, Hyperides, and Dinarchus. Each biography examines the orator's lineage, education, distinctive rhetorical style, and major works, while also tracing their political involvements, exiles, and often tragic ends. The narrative is enriched with memorable anecdotes, such as Demosthenes' rigorous self-discipline to overcome physical impediments and Lycurgus' financial administration of Athens. Furthermore, the text incorporates official Athenian decrees honoring these statesmen, providing a vivid glimpse into the civic and legal culture of the period. Through these individual portraits, the work offers a multi-faceted overview of the intersection between the development of rhetoric and the turbulent history of democratic Athens.
Geography19 chunks · §1.1#1–§13.11,749 aligned sentencesRead →Love Stories
This work is a collection of short narrative accounts detailing how intense passion, desire, and disputes over courtship spark tragic events that ultimately alter the fates of individuals and nations. Set across various regions of ancient Greece, these stories present a series of grim retributions brought about by the excesses of love. The narratives begin with conflicts over beautiful youths, where failed abductions and unintended deaths lead to historical shifts, such as the founding of Syracuse. As the work progresses, the focus shifts to how personal grievances—such as the violation of daughters or unjust banishment—trigger grand-scale retaliations. These actions lead to Sparta's defeat at the Battle of Leuctra and even catastrophic divine earthquakes. Through these episodes, the work illustrates the destructive power of uncontrolled passion and the inescapable nature of retribution.
Others3 chunks · §1-2–§4-5383 aligned sentencesRead →On Affection for Offspring
This work is a philosophical treatise that explores the essence of parents' natural affection for their offspring (philostorgia) and demonstrates how it is a powerful instinct bestowed by nature. The author begins by pointing out that while humans have deviated from their true nature due to reason and social customs, animals and plants still preserve nature in its pure form. By presenting vivid examples of self-sacrificing parental care among various animals, such as kingfishers, lions, and birds, the text strongly criticizes the Epicurean view that parent-child love is based on utility or self-interest. Furthermore, the author argues that while animal affection is limited, human parental love serves as the seed of justice and civilization, and is deeply embedded in the physiological mechanisms of pregnancy and lactation. Ultimately, the work concludes that although raising children offers no practical returns, parents do so out of an overwhelming force of nature, an inherent love that, like gold, remains untarnished and brilliant under any circumstance.
Philosophy5 chunks · §1–§4-5350 aligned sentencesRead →On Being a Busybody
This ethical treatise by Plutarch analyzes the harmful passion of "busyness" or curiosity (polypragmosyne) and advocates for redirecting this energy toward self-examination. The author sharply criticizes the ugly nature of busybodies who pry into others' secrets and flaws, using vivid metaphors and warning of the dangers of investigating the private affairs of the powerful. He dissects the psychology of curiosity, revealing its connection to malice and envy. To overcome this vice, Plutarch suggests refocusing the mind on the study of nature and history, as well as practicing daily exercises of self-control, such as delaying the opening of a letter. Ultimately, drawing on the tragedy of Oedipus, the work warns of the disastrous consequences of needless meddling and guides the reader toward rational self-restraint.
Philosophy7 chunks · §1-2–§14-16723 aligned sentencesRead →On Chance
This philosophical work explores the question of whether human life and actions are governed by "chance" (tyche) or by "prudence" (phronesis). Opposing the popular view that chance rules all, the author argues for the necessity of good deliberation, citing the moral actions of historical figures such as Aristides and Alexander. Although humans are physically inferior to wild beasts, they dominate all other creatures and build their own lives through the power of reason and foresight, symbolized by Prometheus. The author further demonstrates the minimal role of chance in professional skills by referencing the work of artisans and anecdotes of painters. Ultimately, the work concludes that it is not capricious chance, but rather prudence and wisdom, that guide human happiness and the conduct of life.
Philosophy3 chunks · §1-2–§4-6208 aligned sentencesRead →On Compliancy
This philosophical and ethical essay addresses the passion of "excessive compliancy" or "shamefacedness" (dysopia), which, despite originating from a fundamentally good disposition, causes great harm in human life. The author, Plutarch, warns that this weakness is a dangerous affliction that leads to distorted judgments in court, subjugation to others, and even historical tragedies and ruin. To cure this condition, he proposes starting with small, daily exercises in refusal, such as declining toasts or games of dice at social gatherings. He employs numerous anecdotes and sharp retorts from ancient sages like Plato, Cato, and Themistocles to demonstrate how to firmly reject unjust demands and sycophancy. Ultimately, the work emphasizes that it is far better to refuse an unjust request and face resentment than to comply and suffer deserved condemnation, encouraging readers to overcome this vulnerability by remembering past regrets.
Philosophy7 chunks · §1-2–§18-19684 aligned sentencesRead →On Envy and Hate
This philosophical essay explores the essential differences and similarities between two negative human emotions: envy and hate. The author begins by defining these emotions, noting that while hate arises from a rational repulsion toward evil or a defensive fear—feelings shared even by animals—envy is an unjustified reaction to the good fortune of others and is unique to human relations. In the latter half, the work utilizes various metaphors and examples, such as the growth of plants, the prosecution of Socrates, and the relationship between light and shadow, to analyze the distinct nature of these two passions. It contrasts how envy and hate react differently to benefits received or misfortunes suffered, vividly illustrating their respective psychological mechanisms. Ultimately, the work guides the reader to a systematic understanding of the decisive boundaries that separate these seemingly similar emotions.
Philosophy2 chunks · §1-5–§6-8215 aligned sentencesRead →On Exile
This work is an ethical essay that addresses how one should face the adversity of "exile" with reason and philosophical fortitude. The author argues that misfortunes such as exile and dishonor hold no objective weight, but rather their gravity is determined by human subjective judgment. Presenting the concept of humans as "citizens of the universe" (cosmopolitans) whose true homeland is the entire cosmos, the text challenges the grief associated with losing a specific city. Through numerous historical and mythological examples of ancient sages and poets who achieved enduring legacies in foreign lands or quiet islands, the work demonstrates that exile actually brings freedom from troublesome political duties and fosters spiritual self-sufficiency. Ultimately, it concludes with a grand perspective that, in terms of the essence of the soul, all humans are merely travelers and exiles on this earth, offering a profound guide to maintaining inner peace amidst adversity.
Philosophy8 chunks · §1-3–§17743 aligned sentencesRead →On Fate
This treatise is a philosophical inquiry into the nature of fate (heimarmene) and how it coexists with human free will and contingency, framed within Platonist philosophy. Written as a letter to the author's friend Piso, the work begins by defining fate in two aspects: as "activity" and as "substance." The author argues that fate operates like a conditional civil law, prescribing general rules rather than making every individual event necessary from the beginning. Through this framework, the text systematically analyzes how concepts such as "the possible," "the accidental," "chance," and "what depends on us" (free choice) can be reconciled within the causal order of fate. In the latter part, the relation between fate and the three levels of divine providence (pronoia) is clarified, drawing on Plato's Timaeus and Laws. Ultimately, the work rejects absolute determinism, presenting a harmonious worldview that preserves both divine order and human moral responsibility.
Philosophy6 chunks · §0-3–§10-11634 aligned sentencesRead →On Having Many Friends
This ethical essay discusses the pitfalls of seeking too many friends and argues that true friendship can only exist among a small number of people. Drawing on anecdotes from philosophers like Socrates and Pythagoras, the author points out the folly of pursuing an excessive number of social connections. He argues that genuine friendship requires careful testing and time, whereas having many friends dilutes the depth of relationships, leads to conflicts from conflicting demands, and increases the danger of being dragged into others' misfortunes. Furthermore, since the essence of friendship lies in similarity, trying to accommodate many friends forces one to constantly change like Proteus, resulting in the loss of one's own identity. Ultimately, the work concludes that one should strive for deep and stable relationships with only a select few.
Philosophy4 chunks · §1-2–§7-9329 aligned sentencesRead →On Hearing
This prose work, addressed to the young Nicander, outlines the proper attitude and mental preparation required for "hearing" philosophical lectures and discourses effectively. The author emphasizes that the ability to listen with humility and self-control must precede the art of speaking, pointing out how vanity, jealousy, and arrogance obstruct genuine learning. Listeners are urged not to be swayed by sophistical eloquence or the speaker's reputation, but rather, like bees, to extract substantive utility from the discourse. The work also offers practical advice on asking appropriate questions, offering balanced praise, and accepting constructive criticism or philosophical correction with grace. Ultimately, it concludes with the famous metaphor that the mind is not a vessel to be filled, but a hearth to be kindled, asserting that active and independent thinking is the true beginning of a virtuous life.
Others11 chunks · §1-2–§18738 aligned sentencesRead →On Monarchy, Democracy, and Oligarchy
This short treatise addresses the fundamental question of political philosophy: what is the best form of government (politeia). Following a political dialogue, the author begins the discussion by outlining various definitions and historical classifications of constitutions. Based on Platonic thought, the work compares major forms of government, namely monarchy, democracy, and oligarchy. Ultimately, using the metaphor of tuning a musical instrument to illustrate harmony in governance, the author concludes that monarchy is the most excellent form of government.
Philosophy1 chunks · §1-4105 aligned sentencesRead →On Moral Virtue
This treatise by Plutarch explores the nature of moral virtue and its relationship with the rational and irrational elements of the human soul. The author begins by surveying earlier theories of virtue, specifically critiquing the Stoic monistic view that regards passions merely as deviations of reason. Drawing instead on Pythagoras, Plato, and Aristotle, Plutarch advocates for a dualistic psychology that distinguishes between the rational part of the soul and its emotional, irrational counterpart. He explains that practical wisdom (phronesis) shapes moral virtue by guiding the irrational passions toward a harmonious mean, much like tuning a musical instrument. Through a refined analysis of temperance, self-control, and inner conflict, he argues that the very experience of fighting oneself proves the existence of a divided soul. Ultimately, the work concludes that the goal of reason is not the eradication of passions, but their moderation and integration, turning them into valuable allies in the pursuit of virtue.
Philosophy12 chunks · §1-2–§12913 aligned sentencesRead →On Praising Oneself Inoffensively
This work is a practical treatise on rhetoric and ethics that addresses the generally disliked act of "self-praise," exploring how one can employ it effectively and appropriately without provoking resentment or envy (phthonos) from others. Drawing on numerous historical examples of statesmen and philosophers such as Pericles, Demosthenes, and Epaminondas, the author analyzes the specific situations in which self-praise is permissible and politically useful. In the first half, the discussion focuses on exceptional circumstances where self-assertion is justified, such as in legitimate self-defense against false accusations or during times of unjust misfortune. The middle section introduces practical techniques to mitigate envy, such as combining self-praise with compliments to the audience, attributing one's success to fortune or the gods, or voluntarily admitting minor flaws and hardships. In the latter half, the text discusses how self-praise can be used constructively to inspire others or admonish the arrogant, while warning against the inherent dangers of vanity and emphasizing the importance of self-restraint when praised by others. Ultimately, the work reframes self-praise not as a sign of mere vanity, but as a carefully controlled skill to be exercised for the sake of virtue and the public good.
Philosophy8 chunks · §1-2–§20-22664 aligned sentencesRead →On Superstition
This philosophical treatise contrasts atheism and superstition, two maladies arising from ignorance of the gods, and sharply criticizes the profound harm that superstition inflicts upon the soul. The author, Plutarch, points out that "fear," the most debilitating emotion that paralyzes reason, lies at the very core of superstition. While the superstitious person is tormented by nightmares during sleep, resorts to extreme self-tormenting rituals in times of adversity as divine punishment, and finds no escape even in death, the atheist, though ignorant, remains free from such pathological passion. Plutarch argues that superstition is far more impious than atheism because it views the gods as cruel and vindictive beings, and that the savage rituals of superstition actually drive people toward atheism. Ultimately, the work warns readers not to rush to the opposite extreme of atheism in their flight from superstition, but rather to pursue piety (eusebeia) as the proper golden mean.
Philosophy7 chunks · §1-2–§12-14587 aligned sentencesRead →On Talkativeness
This work is a philosophical and moral treatise that exposes the evils of excessive talkativeness and proposes practical remedies to overcome this habit. In the first half, the author humorously depicts how talkative people alienate themselves from others by refusing to listen, and illustrates the inherent dangers of their behavior. Through various historical anecdotes and literary references, the text demonstrates how a failure to keep secrets leads to personal ruin and historical disasters. In contrast, the virtue of silence is praised through the examples of ancient sages and mythological figures. The second half of the treatise shifts toward practical therapy for curing this deeply ingrained habit. The author suggests specific exercises, such as refraining from interrupting others, pausing before answering, and avoiding topics of personal obsession, urging readers to cultivate self-reflection and discipline to master the art of silence.
Philosophy13 chunks · §1-2–§231,262 aligned sentencesRead →On the Control of Anger
This work is a practical philosophical dialogue that explores how to control and overcome anger, one of the most destructive human passions. In response to an inquiry from Sillas, Fundanus, who once possessed a fiery temperament, shares his personal methods of self-treatment and practical philosophical teachings. The discussion begins with the training to suppress anger in its early stages through silence and self-observation, emphasizing that the ugly appearance of others' anger should serve as a negative example, and that anger is a sign of a weak soul rather than a strong one. Drawing upon historical anecdotes of ancient sages and rulers who demonstrated magnanimity, Fundanus explains concrete mental attitudes to avoid hasty punishment of slaves and close associates, including abandoning luxury and the delusion of being despised. Ultimately, Fundanus demonstrates that through cumulative practices, such as taking temporary vows to abstain from anger, the control of this passion brings the greatest peace to oneself, concluding with the supreme value of cultivating a gentle disposition.
Philosophy12 chunks · §1–§16981 aligned sentencesRead →On the E at Delphi
This work is a philosophical and theological dialogue concerning the true meaning of the mysterious letter "E" (Epsilon) dedicated at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. The interlocutors, including Plutarch and his companions, present a variety of interpretations of the letter from numerological, astronomical, and logical perspectives. In the first half of the discussion, they propose that the letter represents the number "five," leading to Pythagorean mathematical theories, cosmology of the five elements, and the logical particle "if" (ei) favored by the god of prophecy. In the latter part, however, the philosopher Ammonius dismisses these mathematical explanations to offer a profound metaphysical interpretation: that the "E" stands for the greeting "Thou art" (ei). This view contrasts the fleeting, changing nature of human existence with the eternal, unchanging "now" of the divine, concluding with the harmonious relationship between "Thou art" and the famous Delphic maxim "Know thyself."
Philosophy10 chunks · §1-2–§21814 aligned sentencesRead →On the Eating of Flesh (I)
This work is a philosophical treatise that questions the ethical and physical unnaturalness of human flesh-eating. The author begins by addressing those who view Pythagorean vegetarianism with astonishment, arguing that while flesh-eating was inevitable during ancient times of scarcity, it constitutes unnecessary slaughter in today's age of abundance. He points out that the human anatomical structure is not naturally suited for eating meat, and exposes the contradiction of using seasonings to mask the cruelty of the act. Furthermore, he warns that a meat-based diet dulls both the body and the soul, depriving humans of mental clarity. Ultimately, he argues that abstaining from meat fosters a habit of benevolence and links this practice to ancient, profound doctrines such as the transmigration of souls and mythical punishments.
Philosophy3 chunks · §1-2–§6-7265 aligned sentencesRead →On the Eating of Flesh (II)
This philosophical treatise denounces the cruelty and ethical issues of human meat-eating while advocating for the righteousness of vegetarianism. The author begins by criticizing the brutal reality of modern slaughterhouses, warning that dietary immoderation leads to societal luxury and violence. He further points out that animals possess senses and perception, fiercely criticizing Stoic arguments that justify meat-eating while praising the vegetarianism of Pythagoras and Empedocles as ancient and noble teachings. Furthermore, he argues that becoming accustomed to killing animals historically led to massacres among humans, warning that animal slaughter carries immense ethical risks regardless of the truth of reincarnation. Ultimately, the work urges readers to examine their own feelings and conscience regarding justice toward animals.
Philosophy3 chunks · §1-2–§5-7214 aligned sentencesRead →On the Education of Children
This prose work presents a comprehensive treatise on the education of free-born children, aiming to cultivate morally and intellectually outstanding individuals. The discussion begins with the prerequisites for child-rearing, emphasizing the role of nobility, parental preparation, and the triad of nature, reason (logos), and habit in attaining virtue. It then addresses early childhood care and the rigorous selection of teachers, identifying philosophy as the pinnacle of all learning to harmonize the soul. The author advocates for non-violent guidance through praise and appropriate rest, while advising on self-control, speech, and social interactions as the child grows. Finally, after warning against evil companions and flatterers using Pythagorean precepts, the work concludes by urging fathers to show tolerance and lead by moral example.
Others13 chunks · §1-3–§18-201,361 aligned sentencesRead →On the Fortune of the Romans
This work is a rhetorical and philosophical treatise exploring whether the rise and hegemony of the Roman Empire were achieved through human "Virtue" (Virtus) or the favor of "Fortune" (Fortuna). The author argues that while both played a role, Fortune has consistently been the primary guardian of Rome, as evidenced by the numerous temples the Romans historically dedicated to her. Through a series of historical anecdotes, the text illustrates how key leaders like Julius Caesar and Augustus, as well as early kings such as Romulus, Numa, and Servius Tullius, owed their survival and success to miraculous luck rather than sheer virtue. Crucial military crises, such as the Gallic siege of the Capitol being thwarted by the cackling of sacred geese, and the timely death of Alexander the Great, are presented as proof of Fortune's active intervention. Ultimately, the work depicts Rome's enduring supremacy as the result of a great, divine Fortune that has consistently guided and protected the state from its very inception.
Philosophy10 chunks · §1-3–§13747 aligned sentencesRead →On the Glory of the Athenians
"On the Glory of the Athenians" is an essay arguing that the true source of Athens' historical greatness lies not in its celebrated arts, poetry, or oratory, but rather in the actual military achievements of its generals. The author asserts that mimetic arts such as history, painting, and poetry derive their value only from the grand deeds they depict. He criticizes the excessive public expenditure on theatrical productions, contrasting the playwrights with the generals who preserved the state through battle. Finally, by contrasting the meticulous speechwriting of renowned orators with the decisive actions of military commanders, the work concludes that noble action is far superior to eloquent words in securing lasting glory.
Philosophy5 chunks · §1-2–§8463 aligned sentencesRead →On the of Wealth
This philosophical treatise exposes the evils of an excessive attachment to wealth (greed) and explores where true human fulfillment lies. Utilizing various anecdotes of historical figures and vivid metaphors, the author sharply analyzes the nature of wealth. At the outset, it is argued that wealth, far from satisfying human desires, only breeds a craving for unnecessary luxury and leads people to ruin; thus, the true cure is not the accumulation of riches but the purification of the soul. In the middle section, the author harshly criticizes the "poverty of the mind" seen in misers who merely hoard wealth without enjoying it, depicting the tragedy of how this distorted value system destroys family relationships. Ultimately, the work concludes that the display of wealth is mere vanity dependent on the eyes of others, whereas that which truly and permanently gladdens the soul is not external riches but a life guided by moderation and virtue.
Philosophy4 chunks · §1-3–§8-10421 aligned sentencesRead →On the Principle of Cold
This treatise is a philosophical and scientific inquiry into the nature of "coldness" and which of the primary elements serves as its first principle. The author begins by arguing that cold is not merely the absence of heat, but an active power (dynamis) with its own distinct essence, as evidenced by its physical effects on the body. He then systematically examines which of the four elements is the primary source of cold, contrasting the theories that favor air, water, and ultimately earth. Throughout the work, various natural phenomena, such as freezing, seasonal habits, and the temperature of well water, are analyzed alongside quotes from earlier philosophers like Empedocles. The author demonstrates that coldness is closely related to weight, density, and the freezing power inherent in the earth. In the end, rather than dogmatically deciding on a single definitive answer, he encourages his interlocutor Favorinus to maintain a suspension of judgment (epoche).
Philosophy10 chunks · §1-3–§21-23895 aligned sentencesRead →On Tranquillity of Mind
This philosophical treatise explores how one can attain "tranquillity of mind" (euthymia), presented as a response to the author's friend Paccius. The author rejects the passive view that tranquillity is achieved by avoiding action, arguing instead that it is defined by noble deeds and the training of the soul through reason. Throughout the work, he points out the folly of relying on external circumstances or comparing oneself with others, emphasizing the importance of appreciating the good things one already possesses. Drawing on numerous anecdotes of historical figures like Socrates and Diogenes, as well as poetic verses, he advises readers to focus on a life suited to their own nature and to overcome the fear of death. Ultimately, the work concludes that by viewing the universe as a divine temple and life itself as a sacred festival, one can find true and lasting peace through a clear conscience and virtuous living.
Philosophy13 chunks · §1-2–§201,009 aligned sentencesRead →On Virtue and Vice
This philosophical work explores the impact of virtue and vice on the happiness of the human soul. The discussion begins with the premise that external goods, such as wealth and fame, cannot bring true happiness to the soul on their own. The author points out that if vice (*kakia*) resides within the soul, any amount of wealth or luxury will instead turn into a source of discomfort and misery. In contrast, it is explained that only virtue (*arete*) and reason (*logos*) can bestow true inner peace and self-sufficiency upon a person. Ultimately, the work concludes that instead of relying on external circumstances, cultivating one's inner soul through virtue is the sole path to genuine happiness.
Philosophy1 chunks · §1-477 aligned sentencesRead →Oracles at Delphi no longer Given in Verse
This work is a dialogue in which intellectuals visiting Delphi discuss why the oracles of the Pythia (priestess of Delphi) are no longer delivered in stately verse but in simple prose. Initiated by debates over the beauty of the bronze statues and dedications at the sanctuary, the speakers—including Theon, Sarapion, and Boethus—eventually turn to the central theme of the shifting style of divine revelation. They argue that while God provides the prophetic inspiration, the linguistic expression is mediated through the imperfect human soul and physical body of the priestess. Unlike the past, when politically turbulent times demanded ambiguous and suggestive poetry, the peaceful and stable modern era is suited to clear and simple prose, which enhances the clarity and credibility of the oracle. Ultimately, the dialogue demonstrates that the transition to prose is not a decline in divine power but a rational adaptation to human history, celebrating the enduring revival of the Delphic sanctuary.
Theology14 chunks · §1-2–§29-301,288 aligned sentencesRead →Proverbs used by the Alexandrians
This work is a prose compilation that collects and explains various proverbs (paroimiai) used in ancient Greece, particularly in Alexandria. Structured into multiple "centuries" (collections of around one hundred sayings), the text provides concise explanations of the origins and figurative meanings of each proverb. The sources of these sayings are highly diverse, ranging from Greek myths and historical events to regional customs, animal behavior, and anecdotes from theater or law courts. The author clearly demonstrates how each expression originated and how it is applied metaphorically. By reading this collection, readers can understand the background of the figurative language used by ancient Greeks in their daily lives and literature, gaining insight into their wisdom and humor.
Others6 chunks · §1.1-1.22–§2.16-2.311,055 aligned sentencesRead →Sayings of the Spartan Women
This work is a collection of sayings and anecdotes showcasing the courage and patriotism of ancient Spartan women. The figures presented range from royal women to ordinary mothers, and their encounters with war, death, and temptation are depicted in concise dialogues and episodes. The text begins with famous anecdotes of notable figures, such as Brasidas's mother Argileonis and King Leonidas's wife Gorgo, and transitions into stories of unnamed mothers. Rather than mourning the deaths of their sons, these women take pride in their country's victory and sometimes even execute their own cowardly sons. In the latter half, the focus shifts to women who, even when facing slavery or temptation, preserve their dignity and choose death over dishonor. Ultimately, this collection vividly illustrates the unique Spartan virtue of unyielding discipline and pride through the powerful and resolute voices of its women.
Others6 chunks · §1.1–§5.14-5.30273 aligned sentencesRead →Selection on Impossibilities
This work is a compilation of short Greek proverbs and sayings handed down from the classical period. It primarily collects figurative expressions denoting "impossible tasks" or "futile endeavors." The compilation features vivid depictions of human limitations and wasted efforts. At the same time, it includes contrasting expressions that describe "extremely natural and easy tasks," highlighting the stark contrast between the impossible and the effortless. Though a brief and fragmentary text, it offers a glimpse into the rich metaphorical language of the ancient Greeks and their understanding of human limitations.
Fragmentary Texts1 chunks · §1-52197 aligned sentencesRead →Summary of the Birth of the Spirit
This work is a philosophical and scientific commentary examining the creation and nature of the cosmic soul as described in Plato's dialogue Timaeus. The author explores how the soul shapes matter and presents criticisms of various previous theories, including those of the school of Poseidonius. It argues that the dual nature of the soul—rational motion on one hand, and sensory or opinion-forming motion on the other—stems directly from its twofold constituents. The text then explains the mixture of Sameness, Difference, and the Intermediate Essence that make up the cosmic soul, illustrating how these correspond to the soul's cognitive and motive capacities. Finally, it demonstrates how the harmony of the four elements in the cosmic body serves as a metaphor for the proportional harmony of the soul itself.
Philosophy2 chunks · §1-4–§5-6178 aligned sentencesRead →That We Ought Not to Borrow
This practical ethical essay warns against the spiritual and material enslavement caused by easy borrowing, advocating instead for the preservation of freedom through self-sufficiency. Beginning with Plato's restrictions on water usage, the author argues for the importance of discarding unnecessary luxuries and living by one's own means. He vividly depicts the misery of debtors by comparing them to those tortured in Hades, while exposing the insatiable greed of moneylenders to emphasize how ruinous debt is. Furthermore, drawing examples from the natural world where animals do not borrow, as well as ancient philosophers who lived nobly through self-reliant labor, he demonstrates the dignity of independence. Finally, the work criticizes the wealthy who accumulate debt out of mere vanity, urging readers to escape the trap of subjection even if it means embracing voluntary poverty.
Philosophy4 chunks · §1-3–§8462 aligned sentencesRead →The Stoics Speak More Paradoxically than the Poets
This essay critically examines the contradictions inherent in the Stoic concept of the "wise man" (sophos), comparing it to the bizarre characters found in poetry and mythology. The author argues that the paradoxes proposed by the Stoics regarding their sage are far more absurd and unnatural than any fables created by the poets. Throughout the work, the author highlights the stark contrast between the absolute strength and happiness attributed to the Stoic sage and the actual vulnerability and misery they might experience in reality. By juxtaposing the dogmas of the Stoics with mythical monsters and heroic transformations, the text demonstrates that the Stoic ideal is intellectually unsustainable. Ultimately, the essay concludes that the Stoic portrait of the sage is a self-contradictory construct that defies both human nature and common sense.
Philosophy1 chunks · §1-670 aligned sentencesRead →To an Uneducated Ruler
This work is a philosophical and political discourse that expounds on the vital importance of philosophy and reason (logos) for rulers, urging them to govern themselves before governing others. Addressing rulers directly, the text employs historical anecdotes and vivid metaphors to deliver its message. It begins by contrasting uneducated rulers with hollow, giant statues, asserting that true leadership requires the ruler to first discipline their own soul. The argument progresses to state that a ruler should not be governed by written laws, but by an internal reason, through which they embody virtue and become an image of the divine. Finally, the work warns that power easily exposes one's vices, emphasizing that a philosopher-ruler must suppress their passions and exercise self-control as gently and steadily as the sun.
Philosophy3 chunks · §1-2–§5-7292 aligned sentencesRead →Whether Fire of Water Is More Useful
This philosophical and scientific essay explores the classical question of whether fire or water is more useful to human life and nature. At the beginning, the author quotes various poets and thinkers to argue that water is an indispensable element essential for all life. In the middle section, while water is praised for its safety and its role in facilitating civilization through maritime trade, a powerful counterargument is presented: fire (heat) is the active principle of generation and preservation, and water itself rots and dies without it. Toward the end, the work argues that while water requires fire to be useful, fire is self-sufficient. Ultimately, fire is championed as the most noble element, serving as the foundation of all technology, doubling the effective span of life by conquering the night, and enabling visual observation of the heavens to enrich the soul.
Philosophy3 chunks · §1-5–§10-13352 aligned sentencesRead →Whether the Affections of the Soul Are Worse Than Those of the Body
This treatise compares and examines whether the diseases of the body or the passions of the soul are more miserable and destructive for human beings. Starting from Homer's observation that man is the most wretched of all creatures, the author analyzes the differing natures of bodily and spiritual illnesses. While bodily diseases bring physical pain and compel the patient to seek treatment, the ailments of the soul paralyze reason, leaving the individual entirely unaware of their own sickness. Furthermore, unlike physical illness which forces a person to rest, the diseases of the soul drive individuals into frantic action and ruinous behavior. Finally, the author illustrates the destructive gravity of these spiritual passions through the vivid depiction of chaotic crowds clashing in marketplaces and courts.
Philosophy2 chunks · §1-2–§3-4158 aligned sentencesRead →Whether Vice is Sufficient to Cause Unhappiness
This philosophical essay investigates whether the true cause of human unhappiness lies within vice or fortune. The work begins by criticizing the busy and stressful life of the court, contrasting it with the value of a quiet and safe life in obscurity. It then argues that unlike tyrants who rely on external instruments to inflict pain, vice directly invades and shatters the human soul, making the rule of reason impossible. In the latter part, the author introduces an allegorical debate between Fortune and Vice over a contract to construct a miserable life. Ultimately, the essay concludes that external misfortunes are only effective when they exploit a pre-existing internal vice, establishing that vice itself is the self-sufficient architect of unhappiness.
Philosophy2 chunks · §1-2–§3-5172 aligned sentencesRead →