Cicero
Latin · Philosophy · Ethics · Rhetoric · Oration
18 works · 83,224 aligned sentences
Birth: 106 BC / Death: 43 BC
Arpino → Formia · philosopher · poet · political theorist
Academica
This work is a philosophical dialogue that examines the uncertainty of human knowledge and the search for truth by comparing the doctrines of the "Old Academy," the "New Academy," and the Stoics. The dialogue begins in a villa in southern Italy, where Cicero, Atticus, and Varro reunite and debate the significance of writing philosophy in the Latin language. Varro traces the history of philosophy from Socrates onward, explaining the tripartite system of ethics, physics, and logic shared by the Old Academy and the Peripatetics, before introducing Zeno's Stoic epistemology. In response, Cicero takes over as the narrator in the latter part, discussing how Arcesilaus founded the New Academy—characterized by the suspension of judgment (epoche)—to counter Zeno's dogmatism, and exploring its historical background. Thus, the work illuminates how a skeptical attitude toward dogmatic truth emerged in the history of philosophical inquiry.
Philosophy8 chunks · §1.1-1.6–§1.42-1.46842 aligned sentencesRead →In Defense of Archias
In this oration, Cicero defends the legitimacy of the Roman citizenship of the Greek poet Archias. Addressing the plaintiff's formal accusations regarding irregularities in Archias's registration, Cicero presents the legal facts while passionately advocating for the intrinsic value of literature and humanistic studies (humanitas). The first half of the speech establishes the legal grounds of Archias's citizenship, detailing his integration into Roman high society and his lawful registration. In the second half, Cicero shifts to a broader defense of the liberal arts, arguing that poetry provides mental restoration, fosters noble character, and immortalizes the great military achievements of Rome. Ultimately, he connects the legitimacy of citizenship with the sanctity of the poet, appealing to the jurors to protect Archias as an invaluable asset to the Roman state.
Rhetoric6 chunks · §1-5–§27-32577 aligned sentencesRead →In Defense of Fonteius
This work is a judicial oration delivered by Marcus Tullius Cicero in defense of Marcus Fonteius, who was accused of extortion and embezzlement during his governorship of Gaul. Cicero begins by demonstrating the absolute accuracy of Fonteius's financial records from his time as quaestor, sharply questioning the credibility of the prosecution's evidence. He highlights the contrast between the Roman citizens and loyal allies like Massilia who support the defendant, and the hostile native Gallic tribes who act as accusers. Furthermore, Cicero attacks the credibility of the Gallic witnesses by pointing to their untrustworthy character and barbarian customs, claiming the charges regarding the wine tax and road construction are mere fabrications born of malice. Finally, emphasizing Fonteius's virtue and his value to the state as a military leader, Cicero presents the tearful pleas of the defendant's sister, a Vestal Virgin, and urges the judges to reject Gallic intimidation and deliver an acquittal.
Rhetoric9 chunks · §1-8–§45-49902 aligned sentencesRead →In Defense of Gaius Rabirius
This oration was delivered by Cicero during his consulship before the Roman assembly to defend the elderly Gaius Rabirius, who was prosecuted for treason regarding his alleged involvement in the killing of the tribune Saturninus decades earlier. At the outset, Cicero warns that this trial is not merely about one individual, but represents a crisis that threatens the authority of the consuls, the senate, and the survival of the state. He fiercely criticizes the prosecutor, Labienus, for using an archaic and cruel procedure that violates Roman laws protecting citizens' liberty. In the core of the speech, Cicero reconstructs the historical context of the ultimate decree of the senate, arguing that Rabirius acted rightly by taking up arms under the consul's command to protect the state. He asserts that prosecuting Rabirius is equivalent to condemning all the great leaders of that era, including Marius. Finally, Cicero appeals to the citizens to maintain the authority of the state's magistrates and pleads for a merciful verdict for the aged defendant.
Rhetoric7 chunks · §1-7–§32-38b714 aligned sentencesRead →In Defense of King Deiotarus
This work is a speech delivered by the Roman statesman and orator Cicero to defend King Deiotarus of Galatia against the accusation of plotting to assassinate Julius Caesar. Held in the unusual setting of Caesar's private residence, the trial begins with Cicero confessing his unease under these circumstances while appealing to Caesar's fairness and clemency. Cicero first explains that Deiotarus's past support for Pompey during the civil war was an unavoidable decision driven by confusion and the authority of the Senate. He then systematically refutes the specific accusations of the assassination plot and other charges, pointing out the unnaturalness of the alleged plan, the contradictions of the accusers, and the King's noble character. Furthermore, he fiercely denounces the immorality of the accusers, who incited a slave to accuse his own master. Finally, emphasizing the King's deep gratitude for Caesar's favors, Cicero implores Caesar to deliver a merciful judgment that guarantees safety rather than ruin.
Rhetoric8 chunks · §1-7–§38-43917 aligned sentencesRead →In Defense of Ligarius
This work is an oration delivered by Marcus Tullius Cicero before the dictator Gaius Julius Caesar in defense of Quintus Ligarius. Ligarius, who had been active in Africa on the side of Pompey during the civil war, faced prosecution, prompting Cicero to advocate for him directly before Caesar. In the first half of the speech, Cicero sharply exposes the hypocrisy of the accuser, Tubero, pointing out that Tubero himself had also fought in the opposing camp against Caesar, and argues that Ligarius's actions were the result of the tragic fate of civil war rather than a crime. In the latter half, Cicero declares that this is not a conventional legal trial but an emotional appeal to the ruler's clemency. Highlighting the grief of Ligarius's family and supporters, Cicero extols clemency (clementia) as the supreme virtue that elevates humans to the divine, concluding with an earnest plea for Caesar's pardon.
Rhetoric7 chunks · §1-5–§33-38940 aligned sentencesRead →In Defense of Marcellus
This oration, delivered in the Senate by Marcus Tullius Cicero, is a speech of gratitude and praise directed toward Julius Caesar following his pardon of Marcellus, a former partisan of Pompey. Breaking his long self-imposed silence, Cicero commends Caesar's clemency (clementia) as an immortal achievement that surpasses his greatest military victories. Throughout the speech, Cicero contextualizes the civil war, portraying the actions of the defeated faction not as a crime but as an error of judgment, thereby highlighting Caesar's exceptional moderation. He argues that the reconstruction of Rome's shattered laws and institutions depends entirely on Caesar's continued survival and safety. Refuting Caesar's statement that he has "lived long enough," Cicero insists that his life cannot be complete until he has restored stability to the Republic, a task essential for his eternal glory. The speech concludes with a solemn pledge of loyalty from the Senate for Caesar's protection and a profound expression of gratitude for Marcellus's repatriation.
Rhetoric6 chunks · §1-6–§30-34569 aligned sentencesRead →In Defense of Rabirius Postumus
This work is a defense speech delivered by the Roman orator and statesman Cicero on behalf of Rabirius Postumus, a wealthy equestrian merchant. The defendant, Postumus, had fallen into financial ruin after lending vast sums of money to the King of Egypt and was subsequently prosecuted in connection with the extortion trial of the provincial governor Gabinius. Cicero argues that Postumus's loans were entirely legal and asserts that the law on recovering extorted funds does not apply to the equestrian order. He defends Postumus's actions in Egypt, including taking a financial office and wearing Greek attire, as desperate and unavoidable measures to recover his seized assets. Finally, Cicero highlights Julius Caesar's ongoing support for Postumus and recalls how Postumus once aided him during his own exile, passionately pleading with the jurors for an acquittal to save his client from total ruin.
Rhetoric8 chunks · §1-5–§43-481,069 aligned sentencesRead →In Defense of Scaurus
This work is a judicial speech delivered by Cicero in defense of Marcus Aemilius Scaurus, a Roman politician accused of extortion during his administration of the province of Sardinia. Cicero begins by praising Scaurus's noble ancestry and refuting the absurdity of the prosecution's allegations concerning poisoning and suicide through historical and philosophical examples. In the middle section, he examines the rumors surrounding the death of a Sardinian woman—the core of the accusation—and systematically exposes the dishonorable lives and untrustworthiness of the prosecution's witnesses. Furthermore, Cicero criticizes the prosecutor Triarius for his negligent lack of investigation on-site, contrasting it with his own past meticulous research, and unmasks the trial as a political conspiracy orchestrated by Appius Claudius to aid a sibling's electoral campaign. Finally, he fiercely denounces the untrustworthy character of the Sardinians while invoking the great legacy of Scaurus's father and traditional Roman virtues, passionately appealing to the judges for an acquittal.
Rhetoric6 chunks · §a-5–§44-51743 aligned sentencesRead →In Defense of Tullius
This work is a court speech delivered by Cicero in defense of the plaintiff, Marcus Tullius, who sought damages against his neighbor, Publius Fabius, for the slaughter of his slaves. The dispute arose from a boundary conflict, culminating in a brutal night attack by Fabius's armed slaves on Tullius's property. Cicero begins by explaining the historical background of the special tribunal established to suppress violence by armed slaves, framing the defendant's actions within this context. He then rigorously refutes the opposing counsel's arguments regarding the legal terminology of "malicious intent" (dolus malus) and "unlawfulness." Finally, by examining ancient laws such as the Twelve Tables and the principles of self-defense, Cicero demonstrates that the defendant's violent assault was an unjustifiable, premeditated attack, thereby securing his client's right to compensation.
Rhetoric7 chunks · §1-7–§50-56903 aligned sentencesRead →Letters to Atticus
This collection of letters contains the extensive private correspondence sent by the Roman statesman and orator Cicero to his lifelong friend and confidant, Atticus. Spanning several turbulent decades, the letters begin with Cicero's political campaigns for the consulship and detail his subsequent exile, return, and tenure as proconsul of Cilicia. As the civil war between Caesar and Pompey erupts, the correspondence vividly captures Cicero’s agonizing dilemma over which side to support and whether to flee Italy. Alongside these monumental historical events, the letters reveal the intimate details of Cicero’s private life, including his passion for collecting books and art to decorate his villas, and his profound, inconsolable grief following the death of his beloved daughter, Tullia. Concluding with the chaotic aftermath of Caesar’s assassination and the rise of young Octavian, this work offers an template-less, firsthand account of a brilliant mind navigating the collapse of the Roman Republic.
Others461 chunks · §1.1.1-1.1.5–§16.16F.1-16.16F.242,229 aligned sentencesRead →Letters to Brutus
This collection of letters documents the urgent correspondence between the statesman Cicero and Brutus, one of the leading conspirators in the assassination of Julius Caesar, during the volatile period following Caesar's death. At the heart of their exchange is a sharp disagreement over how to handle the rising young Octavian. While Cicero advocates for appeasing and utilizing Octavian to safeguard the Senate's authority, Brutus vehemently criticizes this approach as a servile compromise that risks giving rise to a new tyrant. Their debate also extends to the treatment of political enemies, with Cicero demanding strict punishments to secure the state, while Brutus counsels legal caution and pleads for the protection of innocent family members. As the military situation in Italy deteriorates, Cicero repeatedly implores Brutus to hasten back from the East with his legions to rescue the Republic. Interspersed with personal matters like family grief and recommendations, these letters vividly capture the anguish and ideological friction of two prominent figures grappling with the survival of Roman liberty.
Others30 chunks · §1.1.1-1.1.2–§2.5.1-2.5.62,524 aligned sentencesRead →Letters to Friends
This collection comprises a vast array of personal and political letters written by the Roman statesman and orator Cicero to his political allies, friends, beloved family, and his freedman secretary Tiro. Spanning a tumultuous period from his exile and return, through his governorship in Cilicia, to the Caesar’s civil war and the chaotic aftermath of Caesar's assassination, these letters capture the raw reality of the late Roman Republic. Through this informal medium, Cicero reveals his genuine anxieties, political maneuvering, and severe inner conflicts that are absent from his formal speeches. Amidst the collapse of the state, the correspondence also showcases his warm humanity, featuring witty discussions on philosophy and literature with intellectual peers, and deep concern for Tiro's health. Ultimately, the collection offers an unprecedentedly vivid self-portrait of a classical intellectual seeking solace in friendship and philosophy while struggling to navigate a crumbling world.
Others413 chunks · §1.1.1-1.1.4–§16.27.1-16.27.226,555 aligned sentencesRead →On Fate
Cicero's "On Fate" is a philosophical dialogue that addresses the conflict between the necessity of fate and the existence of human free will and moral responsibility. Set against the turbulent political backdrop following the assassination of Julius Caesar, the work is presented as a conversation between Cicero and Hirtius. Adopting the skeptical stance of the Academic school, Cicero rejects the deterministic view that all events are predetermined by fate, arguing instead that human will and philosophical training can overcome natural disposition. He critically examines the logical debates on modality involving Diodorus and Chrysippus, while also dismissing Epicurus' theory of the "swerve of atoms" as an uncaused motion. Supporting Carneades' concept of the "voluntary motion of the mind," Cicero defends the autonomy of the human will without relying on causeless events. Ultimately, he analyzes Chrysippus' attempt to reconcile fate and free will through the distinction between principal and auxiliary causes, concluding that the dispute between determinists and their opponents is largely a semantic one.
Philosophy10 chunks · §1-5–§46-481,053 aligned sentencesRead →On the Best Kind of Orators
This work by Cicero addresses the definition of the ideal orator and the true standard of the "Attic" style. The author argues that, unlike poets, there is only one supreme ideal for orators: the "perfect orator." He asserts that true Atticism does not consist of mere simplicity or the avoidance of faults, but rather in active strength and vitality. Cicero draws examples from Lysias and Demosthenes to demonstrate this, while contrasting the oratorical style with that of the historian Thucydides. He explains his own motivation for translating the famous speeches of Demosthenes and Aeschines into Latin. By presenting the background of their legal battle, the "Trial on the Crown," the work ultimately guides readers toward the pinnacle of eloquence and the ultimate model of oratory.
Rhetoric3 chunks · §1.-8.–§17.-23.414 aligned sentencesRead →Stoic Paradoxes
This work, dedicated by Cicero to his friend Brutus, is a philosophical treatise that aims to demonstrate the extreme propositions, or "paradoxes," of Stoic philosophy using the techniques of rhetoric. The author takes these seemingly absurd Stoic doctrines and reformulates them into persuasive arguments accessible to the general public, drawing on historical Roman exemplars and his own political experiences. Starting with the first paradox that "only what is morally noble is good," the text sequentially addresses topics such as the equivalence of all transgressions and the idea that all fools are enslaved. Throughout the discussion, Cicero contrasts the happiness of the wise person, who remains unshaken by external hardships, with the spiritual bondage of those ruled by desire. Ultimately, the work concludes that true freedom and wealth reside not in material possessions, but solely in inner virtue and self-control.
Philosophy10 chunks · §intro.1-intro.5–§6.47-6.521,098 aligned sentencesRead →Timaeus
This work, framed by Cicero's recollection of his interactions with his academic peers, introduces and adapts Plato's cosmological dialogue Timaeus into Latin. The discourse begins with the Creator's (demiurge) resolve to fashion the universe as the most beautiful and perfect living being, based on an unchanging model. The Creator constructs the physical body of the universe in a spherical shape by joining the four elements—fire, earth, water, and air—through geometric proportion, and infuses it with a cosmic soul mixed from the Same and the Different. The narrative then explains the movement of the heavenly bodies, which establishes the measurement of time and the concept of the Great Year, as well as the creation of various living creatures. In the latter half, the Creator delegates the formation of mortal bodies to lesser divinities, detailing the transmigration of human souls and the mechanics of sight. Ultimately, the text concludes by emphasizing the importance of vision, which allows humans to observe the orderly cosmos and thereby receive the greatest divine gift: the pursuit of philosophy.
Philosophy8 chunks · §1-8–§46-52745 aligned sentencesRead →To the Citizens after his recall from exile
This work is an oration delivered by Cicero to the Roman citizens, expressing his deep gratitude and resolve upon his return from political exile. Cicero begins by sharing his profound joy at reuniting with his fellow citizens and stepping back onto the soil of his homeland, emphasizing that the value of his country and the citizens' favor has only increased after being temporarily lost. He points out that his recall, unlike those of historical predecessors, was achieved not through force of arms, but through the peaceful, lawful, and unprecedented support of the Senate and all of Italy. He goes on to praise those who aided his restoration, particularly the consul Lentulus and Pompey, while reflecting on how his return was inextricably linked to the recovery of the state itself. Finally, while declaring a metaphorical vengeance against the enemies who exiled him, he concludes by pledging his eternal gratitude and unwavering loyalty to the Roman people.
Rhetoric5 chunks · §1-5–§20-25430 aligned sentencesRead →